Farming within environmental limits

Here is a copy of a brief article by Dr Dan Marsh, which was recently published in the new magazine Primary. It discusses the "Natural Capital" approach to setting limits of runoff from farms (for water quality reasons) as adopted by Horizon regional council.

The idea of farming within environmental limits has attracted a lot of attention in recent months. Some of the debate has been around the allocation and setting of nitrogen leaching limits; limits on the amount of nitrogen that can be allowed to leach from a farm or catchment into rivers or lakes. The recent environment court decision on the Horizon's Proposed One Plan (POP) has put the spotlight on the Natural Capital Approach (NCA) which allocates nitrogen leaching rights at a flat rate per hectare that varies with land use class (LUC).

Motu has done a bit of work looking at an alternative approach of nutrient trading - trading the nutrient emissions that pollute waterways within their catchments under a total cap. This ensures waterways can be protected, while the allowable amount of nutrient run off can happen where it can be most efficiently utilised. Dan Marsh touches on this approach in his article too.

Some of Motu's 2009 work on nutrient trading around Rotorua is summed up nicely in this paper.

Nutrient trading for water quality of course has some interesting parallels with emissions trading for greenhouse gases. A similar Motu working paper on allocating units for the New Zealand ETS (Emissions Trading Scheme - covering greenhouse gases) can be found here, with Suzi Kerr's latest thinking on the contentious issue of allocation and fairness in the ETS is covered in this recent presentation by her.

It's all very interesting and contentious stuff - lots of material to look into! Luckily Dan Marsh's article gives a good summary of some of the issues which we are having to confront as we look seriously at farming within environmental limits.

Thanks to Dan Marsh for providing us with the article for this blog.

The New Zealand Farming Story: Tackling Agricultural Emissions

Today we are very excited to release our new short film on New Zealand’s agricultural emissions. Although the topic may sound dry (though hopefully not too dry if you visit this blog!) our filmmaker Jess Feast has done an excellent job of making an engaging film on an extremely important topic for the future of our country, our planet, our people and our stomachs. (She also made our films about improving the water quality in Lake Rotorua).

The film covers a wide range of topics, and many of the ideas in it come directly from what we learnt through the AgDialogue process. Importantly, we cover how we might be able to achieve some real reductions in New Zealand’s agricultural GHGs (greenhouse gases). You will get to meet some of the participants and experts from AgDialogue, including two of our star farmers, Mike and Megan.

The film speaks for itself, so you are better off watching it than reading about it. But before you do that, I’d just like to acknowledge all the hard work that went into making the film. To all those in the AgDialogue who gave their time and those who have done related research in the past few years, this film is dedicated to you and the hard work you have done.  Also thank you to our filmmaker Jess and the Ministry for Primary Industries for its support. The work will pay off in creating a more sustainable and prosperous future for us and future generations.

Oh, and if you like the film, please share it far and wide. New Zealand is uniquely placed to be able to make a big difference to levels of agricultural GHGs (greenhouse gases) around the world. And everyone in this country can make a difference.

UPDATE: Teaching materials to accompany the film have now also been released. These can be found here.

Looking forward: what NZ rural land might look like in the coming decades under a carbon price

This blog post is by Motu Research Analyst Zack Dorner.

A couple of years ago, my sister brought her partner to visit New Zealand for the first time. We picked them up in Auckland, and drove down the North Island back to Wellington. He asked “Why are there so many golf courses here?”

Of course, they weren’t golf courses, but the lush, green grassy farmland that New Zealand is so well known for, and that he was not used to.

Motu has just released a new working paper, modelling what our rural land might look like in the coming decades, including with a price on agricultural GHGs (greenhouse gases). Luckily, for our “golf courses”, even with the agricultural sector facing a price on its GHGs, New Zealand probably won’t look much different to the way it does now.

The really cool thing about the model used is that it is based on real world observations of how rural land use in New Zealand has changed in recent decades in response to commodity prices. It is slow to adjust – farmers don’t want to switch immediately to the new best thing for their land (see final graph below), which is understandable. Changing your whole farm can’t be easy or cheap to do, and who’s to say market conditions won’t change again.

Of course, the results in the working paper are just from a model. They do not predict the future, but give us an idea about the types of changes to land use and their magnitude under certain scenarios. There are on-farm mitigation options that farmers may be able to do to reduce their GHGs before changing land use, but to keep things simple, the model does not include these.

The working paper models three scenarios out to 2030: no carbon price, a carbon price ($25) just for forestry, and a greenhouse gas price for forestry and agricultural emissions.

The model shows several interesting things.

First, as I have said, land use change is quite slow. Even with a $25 carbon price on forestry and agriculture, there is actually relatively minimal changes in land use. This provides evidence that our agricultural sector may be able to respond efficiently to a price on carbon without huge disruption to rural life in New Zealand.

However, although changes to land use are gradual and small, they actually make a big difference to our emissions. The extra trees are especially helpful in this regard. From the paper directly:

Under our ETS [emissions trading scheme] scenarios there is substantial reforestation. The extra removals associated with this new planting mean that the additional sequestration in 2024 is from 17.6 to 20 percent of national inventory agricultural emissions in 2008.

That’s a huge amount of emissions, and would help New Zealand immensely in our quest to lower our emissions.

In terms of cows and sheep, we actually see more dairy cows, and fewer sheep and beef farms. This is because dairy farms are so much more profitable, and the balance is tipped even more in their favour once a price is applied to farming emissions. This is already happening to a much larger extent, and only the already marginal sheep and beef farms are converted to dairy or forestry under an efficient response to a carbon price. The overall change is only minor in the scheme of things, and even when you exclude agricultural emissions from a carbon price, this still happens (see the first graph below).

So these results suggest that there are large benefits to having a $25 carbon price in New Zealand for forestry and our country’s emissions profile. As for agricultural emissions, if dairy and sheep and beef farmers face a price on their emissions, the sky won’t fall in, but the adjustments that are already taking place will just continue to a greater extent. By creating an efficient, economy-wide price signal which includes agriculture, we should achieve more mitigation overall (see the second graph below). If on farm mitigation is encouraged optimally, and technologies continue to improve, we might well see less of the minor reduction in farming in the model and instead end up with more efficient farms on our rural land.

Bringing agricultural emissions into the ETS or some other pricing mechanism must occur once farmers are ready and on board. Through research like this, and having a dialogue with all interested parties, we can hopefully move forward together, and work towards future-proofing our golf courses, and our farms.

And now, for those of you who get a kick out of graphs (like me), here are some relevant ones:

This graph above shows the projected change in land use share for each type of land use. The solid lines give baseline projections. Short-dash-dot lines give a $25 carbon price, but not on agriculture. Dashed lines show a carbon price with agriculture. Note the y axis is the same scale for each graph so direct comparisons can be made (page 9).

This graph shows the amount of emissions that are reduced or sequestered. The red line is with just forestry, the blue line shows including agricultural emissions as well increases the emission reductions (page 16).

  

This final graph below shows why sheep and beef farms have been declining over the years, and how land use change is gradual (page 4 of Kerr and Olssen 2012).

Recently announced changes to the New Zealand ETS

This blog post is by Motu Research Analyst Zack Dorner.

A couple of weeks ago, the New Zealand government announced changes to the Emissions Trading Scheme (ETS) based on a review last year of how it was operating, and recent consultation on proposed changes. This blog post summarises and comments on some of the key points in relation to agriculture.

In terms of agriculture, while processors (such as Fonterra) must report on their emissions as of this year, they do not have to face any costs of their biological emissions until after at least 2015.

In 2015 there will be a review of whether or not they should have to face any of these costs. The next election is scheduled for 2014, and this decision could be highly dependent on who leads the next government. Labour’s policy at the last election was for agriculture to start facing the cost for some of their biological emissions in 2013.

It is worth noting that the government is keeping its price cap on CO2 emissions at $25 per tonne, which means a reduction in this cap over time as it is not being adjusted for inflation. Furthermore, the government is keeping our ETS strongly linked with international markets, which are currently highly dependent on the EU carbon price. The EU carbon price is highly dependent on their regulatory decisions, meaning the price, when below $25, is highly uncertain. A tonne of carbon is worth less than $7 in New Zealand at the time of writing. The agricultural sector is due to get 90% of their credits for free from the Government once they enter the ETS, with this amount being slowly phased out.

The true cost to farmers and processors also depends on the price they receive for their output, which is set in the international market. Other countries, including those in the EU, are moving towards regulation to deal with their agricultural GHGs (greenhouse gases). Policies like regulation, and also to reduce deforestation can raise agricultural commodity prices. Biofuels are an example of a climate policy which has been argued to have raised agricultural commodity prices in recent years due to increased competition for agricultural land.

Our farmers cannot pass on the exact costs of the ETS on to consumers as they face international prices for their produce. However, even if farmers overseas are not facing similar carbon charges, they may be facing other policies which cause international commodity prices to rise, which can help compensate New Zealand farmers for costs under the ETS. The food security issue from higher prices for goods like meat and milk is something for another post.

Uncertainties around commodity prices, carbon prices and entry date into the ETS mean the New Zealand agricultural sector faces large uncertainties as to the future costs they will face under the ETS.

As recommended by the ETS Review Panel last year, the Government would like to move to a farm level for reporting on emissions, which would ultimately mean farmers would have to pay directly for their emissions.

The ETS deliberately sets the point of obligation for participants as high up the supply chain as possible. This is so that, for example, petrol and energy companies do the trading of emission permits, and pass price signal on to consumers, rather than having over 4 million New Zealanders all accounting for their own emissions.

Agricultural emissions are a bit different. Under the current processor-level system, processors are charged on the basis of the national average emissions for every unit of output they produce. This means there are not tens of thousands of farmers in the ETS. Emissions are lowered through processors and farmers (who ultimately may bear the costs) convincing other farmers to mitigate, to lower the national average level of agricultural emissions per unit of output.

Using a farm level ETS, farmers could be directly rewarded for action they take themselves on their own unique farm. By measuring each farm’s emissions, mitigation actions don’t get lost in the surveys done to create national average emission data and the incentives are much stronger for individual farmers to take action to lower GHGs on their farm.

A farm level ETS would require farmers to run a computer programme like OVERSEER, which takes a detailed snapshot of their farm, and models their GHG emissions. OVERSEER is not perfectly accurate, but it is impossible to measure each animal’s emissions directly so it’s a good second best option and is constantly being updated and improved.

There are a number of administrative issues to be worked out before a farm level scheme is viable. It looks to be worthwhile though given it allows farmers much more scope for reducing their emissions and directly rewards them for good behaviour.

Finally, the government notes that it is currently investing over $18 million per annum into research to reduce New Zealand’s agricultural GHGs.

It is true that we are relatively one of the most efficient producers of meat and milk products in the world. New Zealand’s emissions per unit of agricultural output have been reducing at a rate of about 1.3% per year over the last couple of decades. This means a reduction in the amount of emissions per litre of milk, not necessarily an overall reduction, as our overall production has also increased. These reductions in emissions per unit of output have been due to productivity gains – getting more milk per cow for example – and not due to specifically trying to reduce our GHGs (see 2011 ETS review).

So would putting a price on agricultural emissions encourage and facilitate New Zealand farmers to continue to be the best in the world? Is this important for our clean, green brand and to help other countries lower their agricultural emissions? Will putting farmers into the ETS drive their production down, forcing production overseas to places where they are less efficient and do not have to pay for their emissions (so called “leakage”. This issue is briefly addressed in this blog post and this Motu article)? Are there other ways of encouraging our farmers to be greener?

These questions are at the heart of the debate on if/when New Zealand should bring its farmers into the ETS, and no doubt the debate will continue in the years ahead.

Watch this blog for future posts on some solid suggestions from Motu’s Agricultural Emissions Dialogue group as to how we can start dealing with our agricultural emissions. They look outside the ETS as to how we can bring about behaviour change amongst farmers. It is important to remember that reducing our emissions is what we really want, and a lot needs to happen alongside an ETS to achieve this. We don’t want to get bogged down in a heated debate about the current ETS, and lose sight of the big picture.

Further listening/viewing:

Click this link for a good debate between Cath Wallace and William Rolleston on National Radio

There is a good discussion here of mitigation options for agriculture, by Harry Clark

Here is Tim Groser, Climate Change Minister, on The Nation

Thoughts on land use from a young Māori woman

The following post is by AgDialogue participant Ana Ngamoki.

Climate change. Global warming. Greenhouse gas emissions. Fossil fuels.

These terms, and others, have now been ingrained into everyday conversation. As a young Māori woman, what do they mean exactly? It suggests damage to our tribal lands. Or even a loss of food resources and biodiversity. This leads to loss of land, culture and identity. A familiar pattern is emerging; a new form of ‘colonisation’ maybe? This time however, Māori have an opportunity to shape and partake in discussions to control, to an extent, the climate change situation.

Sustainable development. Renewable energy. Emissions trading scheme. Carbon Credits. AgDialogue.

These terms are perhaps a step in the direction towards recognising our role in managing the effects of climate change. The AgDialogue discussions have been an interesting experience. I am not a farmer, a policy analyst, a scientist or even consider myself an expert in this field. However, I have a vested interest and understanding in Māori, and more specifically Te Whānau a Apanui use of land. Our role as kaitiaki (guardians/ steward) over our lands and foreshore is a part of our culture and identity. It is our responsibility to put in place systems now to ensure future generations have continued access to the resources which our ancestors have left us.

Entering the AgDialogue discussions partway through was a daunting experience. I was suddenly thrust into a room of individuals whose years of experience in their respective fields almost equalled my age (and I am quite old!!). Following my first meeting in November 2011 and an exchange trip to Japan, I was able to reflect on my role within AgDialogue. Sometimes it is not until you travel abroad and participate in other processes that you realise how privileged a position you have been put in. This is what I discovered while I was in Japan. As a member of Kaitikiatanga – Caring for our lands and foreshore; a whānau and hapu not-for-profit organisation and, as tangata whenua, we have been allocated a voice in a process which some people and organisations can only dream of. We have been placed in a position where the voices of tangata whenua can be shared within a National Working group and climate change policy can now reflect these voices, aspirations and values.

The most interesting experience for me has been learning and absorbing information and stories from experienced individuals. Nitrification inhibitors were a foreign language to me prior to joining this group, so too were some of the scientific terms associated with climate change. This process has been a window by which I have been able to view how they can be simplified and turned into appealing prototypes such as a cooking show, an educational farming game, and so forth. So as a young Māori woman, witnessing this process has made it a lot easier to understand and work through a complex issue and turn it into a more manageable situation for tangata whenua.

Some Comments on William Rolleston's recent column

This blog post is by Motu Research Analyst Zack Dorner.

In case you missed it, here is an opinion piece published in the Sunday Star Times on 15 April by William Rolleston, vice-president of Federated Farmers. It covers his views on bringing agriculture into the New Zealand Emissions Trading Scheme (ETS). It comes as the Government is consulting the public on a new series of changes to the ETS.

In the opinion piece, Rolleston states:

Farmers here are encouraged to see agriculture's enrolment [in the ETS] on hold until mitigation technologies are available and other countries "make progress". Such pragmatic preconditions don't go far enough. 

Although that may be Federated Farmers’ understanding of the Government’s current position, the first of what are to be regular reviews of the ETS recommended that agriculture come into the ETS in 2015, the date currently in the legislation (see page 47 of this document). The panel recommended this on the basis that there are some Greenhouse Gas (GHG) mitigation options available to farmers, and all other sectors are facing the costs from their emissions.

 It is also important to note though that there is an important difference between the current processor-based ETS (where agricultural emissions are charged at the processor level, eg Fonterra) and a farm-scale ETS.

Farmers have almost no ability as individuals to influence their liability under the current processor-based system in the legislation; therefore inclusion of agriculture may have very little effect on on-farm mitigation. Including agriculture in this situation would mostly send a signal of government’s longer term intentions and shift some of the cost of meeting our domestic reduction targets onto farmers. 

A farm scale ETS would incentivise farmers to take mitigation actions on their farm as this would reduce their liability. The ETS review panel did show a strong preference for a farm scale ETS, though it noted significant administrative barriers to doing this must be worked through (page 49).

Rolleston goes on:

Federated Farmers considers it a necessity that our competitors bring agricultural biological emissions into their schemes before we do likewise. Otherwise, all that will happen is carbon leakage to less efficient carbon production systems.

Unless New Zealand farmers can get a premium for our products overseas on the basis of being a part of an ETS, our farmers face the world price for their product, and therefore cannot pass the costs of their emissions on to their consumers unless other countries put a price on their agricultural emissions. You can argue about whether or not it is fair for our farmers to face these costs while not being able to pass them on to the consumer. 

What’s the evidence for leakage being a problem in our agriculture sector? 

It is important to note here that leakage will likely result in higher global GHG emissions, even if similarly efficient producers take over production. This is because New Zealand operates under an ETS cap, under which reductions in emissions in one sector will be replaced by an increase in emissions in another sector. A reduction in agricultural emissions which are replaced by production overseas would likely be replaced in a country outside of a cap, and lead to an overall increase in emissions.

We have a large amount of prime agricultural land which profitably and efficiently produces agricultural goods, and not much of it is likely to change out of farming due to the ETS. Empirical evidence suggests the ETS is unlikely to induce much land use change.  There may be some risk at high carbon prices; more of these issues and potential remedies covered in this Motu Working Paper (especially pages 7 and 8).

Our agricultural sector is very efficient in terms of emissions at producing milk and meat compared with the rest of the world. This is around Rolleston’s final point.

So where to now? Some positive recognition of agriculture's impressive carbon leadership would be welcome. New Zealand agriculture has, during the past 20 years, reduced emissions in every single unit of agricultural product by about 1.3 per cent each year. As a biotechnologist and farmer, I advocate giving science a chance, through the agricultural greenhouse gas research centre.

The more GHG emissions from our agricultural sector we can reduce, the better. The trick is to figure out how to best incentivise farmers to continue to lower their GHGs per unit of output into the future. Yes, we need more research into mitigation. But we also may need some way of getting farmers to take into account the GHGs of their production, and to keep pushing them to lower their emissions.  

And given New Zealand farmers are so efficient at what we do, we can play an important role as a world leader on agricultural mitigation and policy to encourage it. Through leading the way, we really can punch above our weight to lower global agricultural GHG emissions.

A Farmer's View

Posted on behalf of Sally Lee. Sally farms sheep and beef in West Waikato, is an agricultural consultant, and a member of the AgDialogue group. You can follow what Sally is up to at http://burklee-farm.blogspot.com/

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I accepted the offer of joining the AgDialogue group to broaden my own knowledge on agricultural emissions  and to have some say, if possible, on the future of the ETS on NZ farmers and NZers as a whole. The group is made up of people whom I am beginning to understand more, and who, outside of this group, I would probably never have gotten the opportunity to meet. I hope that this group will be able to inflict some positive change and stimulate understanding of rural concerns to non-rural politicians and others as we progress through this debate.

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As a sheep and beef farmer and a consultant to the pastoral industry, my underlying feeling is that I am opposed to the Emission Trading Scheme (ETS) for NZ agriculture in any shape or form.

With the mass of information in the media about the Emissions Trading Scheme, it is extremely easy to get confused.  My belief it that as it stands now, the ETS is purely a tax on farmers collected at the processor level.  There is absolutely no incentive for farmers to change what they are doing on farm, apart to make the extra margin in their bottom line to pay the tax.  Farmers, as with other NZers, are already paying through the use of fuel and energy. Should we be paying again?

However, I am slowly coming to the realisation that the ETS will exist in some form, although maybe not as we currently know it.  So, what should farmers be doing?

As a hill country farmer, it has been suggested that the solution to our emissions is planting pine trees.  I have seen communities in the past lost forever through the planting of mass areas of pine trees and am a little cynical about the long term solution they offer. Also, as an individual farmer, you still require the upfront capital or a joint venture to turn tree planting into reality, this can be limiting especially after the difficult years we have had as drystock farmers. Also, if we take out large blocks of land, regardless of contour or slope, we will reduce our ‘protein’ production which is currently purchased by NZers and international markets. The result of this could be that, yes, NZ may have reduced its emissions, but this food production will be replaced by some other country (with the accompanying emissions), with no net world emissions decrease.

Instead, I believe that many of the answers to the ETS are about good farming practice and improving efficiency on farm.  The obvious way to reduce emissions is to reduce your stocking rate, however, if this is not managed well it can lead to reduced income, and as farmers we would be no better off. Efficiency can also come in the form of improved lambing and calving percentages, better growth rates, and improved pasture production and utilisation. This is known as Best Practice Management. However, this is not new science/technology and many farmers have still not adapted to this way of farming. Why not?  What do we have to do differently to incentivise change? I recently returned from the first national conference on biological farming systems where there were a number of questions raised as to what role a biological system might have in our emissions.

Also, if we are going to go down this ETS path, then what is the country and the world prepared to pay for our produce?  Farmers can’t keep farming with rising costs and red tape.  With the demise of farmers, there are a number of other consequences that NZ must consider. We might achieve our environmental and financial goals, but this might come at the expense of social sustainability. Other important issues include whether NZ can afford to look at ETS in isolation, or should it be incorporating other issues such as water quality and quantity, ecosystems, carbon footprinting, etc.?

Overall, I feel that NZ farmers should not be targeted. Agriculture contributes a large portion of NZ’s GDP and when agriculture does well, so does the country.  Therefore, I believe that NZ needs to pitch in and deal with the problem as a whole. We as NZ should take the bull by the horns and be a world leader – but we need the support of all, and can’t just target agriculture.

Ag Emissions: What is our Goal?

The AgDialogue group is made up of farmers, Government officials and NGOs united by a desire to ensure New Zealand leads the world in finding solutions to agricultural emissions. I find that being part of this group is a unique opportunity to push past the entrenched rhetoric on climate change and start to find solutions that could really work.

Debating these issues through the media does not seem to be constructive for such an important long term issue, as each side lobs their sound-bites into the battle zone, further entrenching their own positions. This is the worst possible situation for such an important issue. The evidence indicates that climate change requires urgent action, and New Zealand is uniquely placed to lead on a response to agricultural emissions. Adapting to a low emissions world will take time to learn new skills and make the necessary investments, all of which needs to start now. However, without greater certainty no one in their right mind will start to make the necessary changes.

Yet once we agree what we want to achieve, Kiwis are notorious for being able to get on and make it work. The difficult times we faced as a nation in the 1980s pushed us towards some world leading actions on natural resource management (fishing) and agricultural subsidies. Sure, we made some mistakes in implementing the change, and the shift certainly was tough, but the fact that today we have among the strongest farming and fishing sectors in the world is a testament to our resilience, determination and creativity. The difference in the 1980s was that the changes were forced upon us. If we act now, we could lead the world once again and most importantly we could do it on our own terms.

Discussions about what we are trying to achieve, or where we are heading, are all too rare in New Zealand. We are a practical nation, deeply suspicious about concepts and strategies, preferring to focus on what we are going to do. This is great, and is probably the reason we are so successful at solving problems once they become clear. The trouble is that sometimes when the battle is waged over the policies alone, what we are actually trying to achieve is obscured from view.

All our national discussions on climate change have focussed solely on one tool, and a flawed one at that: the Emissions Trading Scheme. Should agriculture be in or out? This narrow line of questioning completely misses the point. Once we have agreed what we are trying to achieve with agricultural emissions, it is simply a matter of working out how to do it. We have shown time and again that if we work together, this bit of the process is easy. Any change always creates winners and losers, but we are a small country, and we can work these things out.

The first tranche of the AgDialogue sessions have focussed very much on what our aim should be, and I am aiming to distil, for discussion, what I have taken from the conversation so far.

Our Vision is that over the next 20 years New Zealand lays the groundwork for having the lowest possible emissions for each amount of food we grow by 2031.

But we aren’t agnostic about how this is achieved. Along the way we also expect that:

Incentives are faced by those that can make a difference to emissions – the point of obligation must be on the farmer, otherwise the charge is merely a tax.

Provide the maximum possible certainty to make long-term investment decisions – we need wide bi-partisan agreement on the way forward so that farmers can start planning and adapting.

Costs are borne by those who cause the greatest impact – we need to make sure that the way we account and charge for emissions actually matches their impact on the environment. It is not clear that this is the case for methane under the approach we have adopted from Kyoto.

Any incentives to reduce emissions actually work – price based systems are not a silver bullet, consideration needs to be given to softer approaches like advice and skills development. There is also little point charging for emissions that can’t yet be reduced; again, the way we currently account for methane is under question here.

The creation of environmental limits is consistent across all areas – we need to be aware of the other environmental constraints that are developing (such as water quality), and ensure that whatever is agreed works in those areas too. In particular the way we deal with nitrous oxide emissions has to dovetail with concerns about nitrogen leaching into rivers. Killing two birds with one stone should be the goal.

Balance long term investments and short term profitability – we want incentives to encourage farmers to prepare for and invest in the long term. This will mean that when the world acts on emissions, we will be in a pole position to benefit. However, this system shouldn’t cause production to move overseas to countries without similar incentives in the short term. Modelling indicates this shouldn’t happen with carbon prices around $25 per tonne (even without free allocation).[1]

Give farmers time to adapt – introduction should be staged to allow farmers time to adapt and minimise social upheaval.

In the 1980s we didn’t have the luxury of time to consider how to act, we simply had to do something. If we don’t begin dealing with emissions now, then we face the risk of another 1980s moment where change is needed immediately, regardless of the side effects and upheaval that may cause. On the other hand if we act now, we have the luxury of taking charge of our own destiny and facing the future on our own terms. This will not be easy, but is far more attractive than putting our head in the sand and hoping for the best.

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[1] http://motu-www.motu.org.nz/wpapers/09_16.pdf